Johnson & Johnson Green Business

Final Individual Research Paper *â€Å"Johnson & Johnson Company*† Table of Contents COMPANY DETAILS: 1. 1 Introduction: Johnson & Johnson (NYSE: JNJ) is a global American pharmaceutical, medical devices and consumer packaged goods manufacturer founded in 1886. Johnson & Johnson is one among the Fortune 500. The corporation’s headquarters is located in New Brunswick, New Jersey, United States. The corporation includes 250 decentralized companies with operations in over 57 countries. Its products are sold in over 175 markets. Johnson & Johnson's brands include numerous household names of medications and first aid supplies. Among its well-known consumer products are the Band-Aid Brand line of bandages, Tylenol medications, Johnson's baby products, Neutrogena skin and beauty products, Clean & Clear facial wash and Acuvue contact lenses {text:bibliography-mark} . The company believes that it is responsible to the communities in which its employees live and work and to the world community as well. As a large, multinational organization, Johnson & Johnson's environmental footprint is complex and far-reaching. The company strives to take action in all its facilities to minimize this footprint. Johnson & Johnson has long been committed to energy conservation and improving the health of the planet {text:bibliography-mark} . J has not always been vocal about its socially and environmentally responsible efforts, even it has gotten attention for its sustainability strategies, including being #3 on Newsweek magazine’s Green Rankings List of green companies {text:bibliography-mark} . On a scale of 1 to 100, AstraZeneca and Johnson & Johnson lead the first-ever review of the pharmaceutical sectors to rate above 70 in a recent survey of sustainability practices by Climate Counts. Climate count evaluates firms’ commitments in four areas: Whether they have measured their carbon footprint If they reduced their impact on global warming If they have supported or blocked climate legislation or policy To what level they have publicly disclosed their climate actions Johnson & Johnson scored highly in all sectors except for measuring its own carbon footprint, an area in which it scored 12 out of 22 {text:bibliography-mark} . Some interesting facts about J: It’s the second largest producer of solar panels in the U. S. it’s the largest corporate user of hybrid vehicles, and it gets 30% of its energy from renewable sources. It’s also done a lot to reduce its water footprint, reduce PVC content in products, sell waste as raw materials, and use recycled paper in product packaging (Gonzalez, 2009). 1. 2 Mission Johnson & Johnson does not have any mission statement. For more than 60 years, document known as â€Å"Our Credo† has guided in fu lfilling responsibilities to customers, employees, communities and the stockholders {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson’s â€Å"Our Credo† is attached in Appendix- B. The company continues to stand by that credo for 118,700 employees at its facilities in the United States and in 54 countries around the world. It states, â€Å"We are responsible to our employees, the men and women who work with us throughout the world. Everyone must be considered as an individual. We must respect their dignity and recognize their merit. They must have a sense of security in their jobs. Compensation must be fair and adequate, and working conditions clean, orderly and safe. Employees must feel free to make suggestions and complaints {text:bibliography-mark} . The philosophy at Johnson & Johnson is that â€Å"All accidents and injuries are preventable. An accident is the end result of a unique chain of events and conditions. The role of all Johnson & Johnson employees is to fore see these acts and intercept them before they occur {text:bibliography-mark} . At Johnson & Johnson, continuous improvement is the basis for ongoing operations. As per Joseph Van Houten, worldwide director of Planning, Process Design and Delivery, â€Å"Johnson & Johnson is never satisfied with maintaining the status quo. Each employee has a responsibility to identify, and has possibility to eliminate hazards. In areas where they cannot be eliminated, employees are expected to be aware of hazards and safeguard themselves and others around them†. As at many companies with stellar safety programs, Johnson & Johnson management believes safety is everyone's responsibility. Employees are expected to be concerned about their own safety and that of fellow employees, families, customers, contractors, visitors and the communities in which Johnson & Johnson operates. Johnson & Johnson’s vision is: bringing science to the art of healthy living. † The safety tenets embodied in the credo have been translated into a safety vision for the corporation that commits Johnson & Johnson to being the world leader in health and safety by creating an injury-free workplace {text:bibliography-mark} . 1. 3 Employee-related activities Johnson & Johnson has a wealth of programs and activities to support a diver se, inclusive culture which acts as an essential key to business success. Affinity groups are voluntary, employee-driven groups that typically focus on a shared interest. These groups provide support and networking opportunities such as mentoring, community outreach, career development and cultural awareness activities. Johnson & Johnson companies offer formal or informal mentoring programs to expand opportunities and support development of a diverse workforce. A number of affinity groups offer programs that match up new members of the work community with experienced leaders who serve as mentors. Johnson & Johnson Diversity University is a dynamic online resource designed to help employees understand and value differences and the benefits of working collaboratively to meet business goals. The Office of Diversity & Inclusion was established to foster recognition of unique backgrounds, talents and abilities as an important competitive advantage within Johnson & Johnson companies. This helps develop strategies to achieve the global diversity vision, helps operating companies share and leverage their best diversity practices, and reports to the Board of Directors and the Executive Committee on diversity within the companies {text:bibliography-mark} . 1. 4 Products: Johnson & Johnson offer products and information targeting baby care, skin and hair care, oral care, nutritionals, women’s health, pain relief, wound care &topical, vision care and Over-the-Counter Medicines. Baby products include Baby Powder, Baby Oil, Baby Cream, Baby Lotion, Baby Shampoo, Baby Hair Oil, and Baby Soap {text:bibliography-mark} . Skin Care products include Clean and Clear Face wash, Johnson Buds, Neutrogena, Aveeno and Ambi Skincare. Oral Health Care products include Listerine, Listerine Whitening, Reach, Efferdent, and Rembrandt. Nutritionals include Splenda, Viactiv, Benecol, Lactacid and Sun Crystals. Women’s Health products include Stayfree, Carefree, K-Y, Monistat, e. p. t and O. B. Wound Care *& Tropical *products include Band Aid, Savlon, Johnson Plast, Bengay, Caladryl, Neosporin, Cortaid, Tucks Hemorrhoidal Ointment, Daktarin, and Purell. Vision Care products are Visine and Acuvue Brand Contact Lenses. Over-the-Counter Medicines include Tylenol, Sudafed, Mylanta, Zyrtec and Zyrtec-D12-Hour, Motrin, Imodium, Pepcid, Nicorette, Benadryl, Rolaids, and Dolormin {text:bibliography-mark} . The figure 1 in Appendix-A shows some of the different products of Johnson & Johnson. J&J’s Strategies in Reducing Environmental *Footprint: Johnson & Johnson has high standards for operating divisions in the area of environmental responsibility- striving to reduce its environmental impact. The figure 1 gives an idea on the investments made in lowering its Carbon Energy Efficiency. Highlights of Johnson & Johnson green features include: Using renewable, efficient, and clean sources of energy. Reducing Green house gases from manufacturing units Reducing water use on a daily basis. Implementing a forward-looking building design and using natural materials. Purchasing green products/packaging, from cleaning supplies to computers. Reducing Carbon footprint – Implementing a robust recycling program. – Making tools available to help employees implement green practices at work and at home {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 1 Green Power: Johnson & Johnson (J&J), a long-time green energy purchaser, has surpassed the 400 million kWh per year mark for its annual renewable energy credit (REC) purchase. The total purchase size of about 435 million kWh per year makes the healthcare products provide the nation’s eighth largest purchaser, according to the EPA’s Green Power Partnership program. The purchase of various RECs from wind and biomass facilities represents about 38% of the company’s U. S. electricity use {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson has won numerous environmental awards over the past 15 years, including the Green Power Partner of the Year in 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007and 2009. Among its environmental initiatives is its goal to reduce greenhouse gas emissions to 7% below 1990 levels by 2010. The company’s renewable energy portfolio also includes direct purchases of bundled green energy from low-impact hydro and wind power. In addition, the company has now installed 4. 1 megawatts (MW) of solar photovoltaic installations at its U. S. facilities. Lastly, the company’s unique 3 MW onsite landfill gas project In Mountain View, California became fully operational in 2007. Under a 15-year gas purchase agreement with the City of Mountain View, ALZA Pharmaceuticals, a J&J subsidiary, uses the landfill methane gas to power three research and development buildings in the area adjacent to the landfill site {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 2 Heat and Power from Landfill Gas: To address volatile, escalating energy prices and concerns about climate change, many large energy consumers including Johnson & Johnson are looking for stable, nonpolluting sources of energy. Besides solar and wind power, landfill gas (LFG) is also an economically viable renewable resource but is often overlooked. 2. 2. 1 Johnson & Johnson’s LFG Project: Johnson & Johnson committed to reducing its GHG emissions by 7 percent below its 1990 levels by 2010. Each of the company’s business units has an emissions target whose progress is tracked annually {text:bibliography-mark} . ALZA pharmaceuticals, a division of J&J, needed to reduce its GHG emissions by 21. 5 million pounds per year or risk failing meet their target. ALZA’s research and development facilities in California are adjacent to the Shoreline Landfill. The figure 2 in Appendix A shows the layout of ALZA. The LFG produced in the Shoreline Landfill by decaying waste was captures and flares in accordance with EPA regulations for large landfills. ALZA and the city of Mountain View signed a 15-year contract for the sale of the gas, which ALZA uses to power three 970-kilowatt generators at each of its research and development buildings in the area. Electricity from the generators powers the buildings, and the heat captured from the exhaust is used to provide hot water {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 2. 2 The System: ALZA takes possession of the gas before the existing flare and processes it on-site at the landfill using a standard moisture elimination system. Three 60-horsepower blowers maintain the gas at a pressure of 6 pounds-per-square-inch (psi) as it passes through a chiller. The temperature of the gas at the inlet is 70 °F, and when it is exposed to the colder temperatures in the chiller, the moisture in the gas condenses and falls out of the gas as droplets. The system removes 90 percent of the moisture in the gas and is capable of processing 1,300 standard cubic feet of gas per minute. Although the landfill generates gas continuously throughout the year, ALZA’s electricity needs vary, and sometimes during the winter months the system generates more electricity than the buildings need. The system is expected to generate 24,000 megawatt-hours of electricity per hour of natural gas consumption {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 3 Solar Energy: A Solar photovoltaic (PV) system provides the clean, reliable, renewable energy. Johnson & Johnson has installed more than 4. MW of solar photovoltaic generation at ten locations in US. According to WRI as of May 2008, J&J is the second largest user of on-site solar energy in the United States {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 3. 1Energy and Atmosphere in J&J PRD, San Diego, California Johnson & Johnson Pharmaceutical Research and Development (J&J PRD) facility in San Diego, California achieved Leaders hip in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) and won several awards for their energy and environmental performance. The solar photovoltaic (PV) system provides the clean, renewable energy at J&J PRD as shown in Appendix- Figure 3. J&J PRD achieved a 2. 2 megawatt from co-generation system so far. J&J PRD roof mounted DC solar PV system which generated a 243 Kilowatt (KW) offsetting 10 percent of the annual electricity consumption in addition to its 90 percent offset from the co-generation system. This shows that J&J PRD has completely offset the building’s net annual energy consumption and making the facility carbon neutral. This Solar PV system is expected to generate annual energy savings of approximately $500,000 depending on the electric rates. J&J PRD solar energy generates power equivalent to power consumed by 80 homes {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 4 Green House Gas Reductions: In Johnson & Johnson since 1990, various company projects have focused on energy efficiency improvements for lighting, facility building envelopes, HVAC, compressed air, office equipment, fuel sources, and heat recovery. From 1990 to 2000, $12. 5M has been saved through these projects and 107,000 metric tons of CO2 have been prevented. Johnson & Johnson's GHG reduction efforts began with an internal goal adopted in 2000. Each operating company is responsible for meeting GHG reduction goals of 4 percent by 2005 and 7 percent by 2010. Many reductions were identified through Johnson & Johnson's Enhanced Best Practices (EBP), which include 245 energy-saving opportunities for affiliates to consider {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson also partners with organizations aiming to set the standard for GHG management such as EPA's ENERGY STAR ®, Green Power Partnership, and Performance Track; World Resources Institute (WRI); World Wildlife Fund; and the Carbon Disclosure Project. The company has received numerous energy and environmental awards including EPA's Green Power Partner of the Year, The California Governor's Award for Sustainable Practices, New Jersey Clean Energy Business Leader of the Year, and The Climate Group Low Carbon Leader {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 4. 1 J&J’s way of approach to GHG Management: Johnson & Johnson's Inventory Management Plan (IMP) has been integrated into its internal GHG Protocol. Using the IMP has given the company's internal protocol much more structure and clarity, making it easier to explain to those employees new to GHG management. Johnson & Johnson has various processes in place to track the progress of its goal. The company's Energy Tracking System (ETS) is solely dedicated to tracking energy and emissions goals. Through this system, affiliates report energy usage, cost, and projects with any applicable savings. The ETS utilizes the latest emissions factors from WRI and EPA, and the system adjusts when new factors are published {text:bibliography-mark} . The largest single component responsible for the emissions reduction is the purchase of renewable energy certificates (RECs) for wind power. The emission reductions due to the RECs purchases in 2004 accounted for 170,000 metric tons of CO2 equivalent, offsetting 29 percent of the company's emissions from electricity use and 19 percent of the total corporate emissions in that year. The continued implementation of Johnson & Johnson's energy efficiency best practices and new facility design criteria have also been important contributing factors to its emission reductions {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 4. 2 Energy and Atmosphere in Janssen *H*eadquarters Janssen is a division of Ortho-McNeil-Janssen Pharmaceuticals Inc. which is a wholly owned subsidiary of Johnson & Johnson. Janssen is driven by dedication to product innovation, customer focus, and organizational excellence. The Janssen Headquarters in Titusville site has been able to reduce energy use by 11% and reduce its carbon footprint by 5,019 metric tons annually; (over 75% reduction) through rigorous building commissioning and maintenance, installation of a 500 kilowa tt rooftop solar photovoltaic system as shown in figure 4 in Appendix-A, and the purchase of green power and renewable energy credits (REC). This is the equivalent of planting approximately 1,500 acres of trees or removing almost 1,000 cars from the roadways {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson generates 24 percent of its corporate electricity demand from renewal energy sources. Janssen has offset its CO2 emissions by installing the solar system on its Titusville facility {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 5 Energy Efficiency: Electricity Johnson & Johnson World Headquarters building was originally built with an all electric heating and cooling system and limited operating flexibility. The ENERGY STAR project which began in 2002 after an intensive energy audit and facility condition audit yielded an initial energy performance score of 52. The facility management team put in place a long-term strategic capital improvement plan to upgrade the building's infrastructure with the most technically advanced and energy-efficient equipment available. In addition to installing energy-efficient equipment, the new design enabled facility operators the ability to optimize the indoor environment to match the needs of the occupants {text:bibliography-mark} . A number of projects were completed, including direct digital control (DDC) upgrades to both air handling equipment and variable air volume (VAV) boxes. Central utility upgrades included converting electric boilers to high efficiency natural gas. The chiller plant was upgraded from a constant flow system to a primary/secondary system with high efficiency centrifugal chillers controlled by variable speed drives (VSD). The cooling tower was upgraded; and a condenser water reset program was installed and controlled by variable frequency drives (VFDs). A 232 KW photovoltaic elevated tracking system was installed on the upper level of the parking deck. Additionally, high efficiency motors and VFDs were installed on all major air handling equipment and the hot water reheat and chilled water pumps. Solar window film, high efficiency electrical transformers, and general office lighting occupancy sensors were also installed. All of the 24/7 air conditioning loads supplied by the central chiller plant were evaluated and replaced with smaller dedicated HVAC systems enabling the chiller plant runtime to be reduced by 5,000 hours per year. The operations and maintenance team replaced 300, 175 watt metal halide lamps in the parking deck operating 24 hours a day with 85 watt Phillips QL induction lamps. The cumulative results of these projects enabled the reduction of the building's overall energy consumption by 25 percent, yielding an improved energy performance score of 85 and qualifying for the ENERGY STAR for superior energy performance {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson’s new lab in La Jolla beats California’s energy efficiency standards by 18%. Efficient technologies installed include window glazing and shades, variable speed drives and lights that are all under 60 watts. A 2. 2-megawatt cogeneration system supplies 95% of electricity as well as heating and cooling. The figure 5 in Appendix-A shows the Cogeneration placement in La Jolla. The new lab met Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Silver standards. Johnson & Johnson was the recipient of a 2005 Flex Your Power Energy Efficiency Award {text:bibliography-mark} . This building itself achieves annual savings of $536,000 on its energy bill, compared to the amount a standard laboratory would expect to pay. According to a model used to estimate energy performance of new buildings employed by the local utility, San Diego Gas and Electric (SDG&E), a standard building would have used $1,432,000 per year, which is 37 percent more than the J&J building. Based upon its exemplary energy performance, the building owners are awarded $143,000 for their inventiveness from SDG&E {text:bibliography-mark} . This building resulted in an impressive list of energy efficiency and water conservation features resulted in an annual savings of more than a half million dollars. This translates into: Enough electricity to power 680 homes Enough natural gas to heat 950 homes Reduced power plant emissions of 4. 8 tons of nitrogen oxides per year, 2. 1 tons of sulfur oxides per year, and 4,318 tons of carbon dioxide per year. 2. 5. 1 Building Envelope: The Lab building in La Jolla, California is constructed of steel framing and curtain wall. A white reflective cap sheet was installed on the roof, which both reduces the overall cooling load for facility and extends roof life because of the reduced roof temperature {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 6 Water Efficiency: Diminishing water supplies and decreasing water quality are pressing an environmental challenge, which is looked as a more acute problem at Johnson & Johnson. J&J have been reducing water use for many years. It achieved a 16 percent absolute reduction in water use from 2000- 2005, at a time when sales increased by 56 percent. To continue to identify and maximize water conservation, J&J set a Healthy Planet 2010 goal for a further 10 percent absolute reduction in water use from 2005- 2010 {text:bibliography-mark} . PRI provides multi-function support services for government and private facilities. Services include base operations, maintenance, building management, operations and maintenance of equipment, and maintenance of building management systems {text:bibliography-mark} . The figure 7 of Appendix-A shows the dropped level of water usage in J&J. Johnson & Johnson implemented a number of water conservation technologies at PRI. These include: Recovering condensate from cooling coils is used as make-up water for the cooling towers. Even though this measure had a 15-year payback, J&J felt that implementing this measure was consistent with their goal of environmental stewardship. Using reclaimed water for landscape irrigation and other uses: Using reclaimed water (which is available through a separate municipal water distribution system in the vicinity of PRI) for landscape irrigation and for providing makeup water to the cooling towers gives J&J a twofold benefit. First, the reclaimed water costs about 10 percent less than regular water. Second, making a commitment to use it may give J&J some beneficial considerations if drought conditions ever necessitate serious curtailment f water use in the future {text:bibliography-mark} Based in Titusville, New Jersey, Johnson & Johnson employs cooling condensate recycling that saves approximately 40,000 gallons of water per year. This eliminates the need for storm water discharge of the condensate and reduces chemical treatment needs for the cooling towers. In 2006, the site converted to 100% waterless urinals, which yielded a 12% reduction in water use (700,000 gallons per year) {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & J ohnson’s La Jolla Lab facility is also water efficient, reducing water use by 11 million gallons annually {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 7 Waste Reduction: * Johnson & Johnson believes that eliminating or reducing waste will not only help the environment but also reduce the associated costs and risks/liabilities from transportation, treatment and disposal. Johnson & Johnson has set a goal to reduce its hazardous and non-hazardous waste by 10 percent against its 2005 baseline levels. So far, J&J’s operating companies have achieved a 10 percent reduction in non-hazardous waste, largely through increased recycling and reuse of their waste and some innovative composting projects. Similarly, increased recycling and reuse of waste have allowed them to achieve a four percent reduction in hazardous waste since 2005 {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 7. 1 At Johnson & Johnson’s Division in Titusville, New Jersey: Initiatives to improve recycling compliance, combined with the elimination 70 percent of cafeteria disposables, have lead to a 29 percent reduction of non-hazardous solid waste which is 106,745kg per year. An innovative program to recycle all used carpet began in 2003 and 34,000 kg of carpet has been recycled till today {text:bibliography-mark} . . 8 Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: Although the vast majority of pharmaceutical and other compounds found in water systems arise from normal patient and consumer use, Johnson & Johnson operating companies are taking steps to evaluate and minimize or eliminate these compounds from their wastewater. Periodic wastewater monitoring has been used to determine potential toxicity to aquatic organisms, to conduct risk assessments, and to develop safe levels for Active pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) {text:bibliography-mark} . Another way pharmaceutical compounds can reach the environment is through consumer disposal of unused or expired medicines. Johnson & Johnson supports the U. S. White House Office of National Drug Control Policy for the Proper Disposal of Prescription Pharmaceuticals. This policy suggests a combination of take-back programs when they are available, trash disposal for most medicines, and flushing for some specific pharmaceuticals, such as narcotics {text:bibliography-mark} . For Example: Johnson & Johnson is also participating in an educational effort, called SMARTxT Disposal, being led by phRMA, the U. S. Fish & Wildlife Service and the American Pharmacists Association to inform consumers about proper disposal of unused or expired medicines. 2. 9 Indoor Environmental Quality: Like most Johnson & Johnson’s buildings that reach an exemplary level of energy efficiency, the PRI facility features a high efficient interior lighting system in its lab division in La Jolla, California. This building’s efficiency lies on two reasons. Lighting energy use is huge. Lighting is the single largest energy end use in most commercial buildings, accounting for anywhere in between 25 and 50 percent of overall energy use. Through a combination of good design and efficient technology like using T5 lamps and electronic ballasts will result in load reduction of 0. 30 to 0. 50 watts per square foot. Lighting efficiency leads to downstream savings. The ample load reductions that result from efficient lighting lead to reduced cooling loads as well. As a result of reduced cooling and airflow requirements, a series of â€Å"downstream† savings are generated, including smaller ductwork, piping, air-handling units, and chillers. All of these down-stream efficiency gains translate into reduced operating cost, as well as construction cost savings for the smaller systems. The interior lighting system at the PRI facility is designed around high-quality fluorescent sources that are applied to balance efficiency with visual comfort. Other features of the lighting system include occupancy sensors throughout the building and the use of radioactive exit signs that glow without a wired power source {text:bibliography-mark} . Looking at Johnson & Johnson’s division in Titusville, New Jersey, an innovative program to reduce air contamination inside the building was implemented that utilizes ultraviolet lights in all air handlers. This system ensures the cleanest air supply possible, while eliminating the need for chemicals to purify air handler condensate. The site has also implemented low environmental impact housekeeping procedures since 2003, including compliance with Green seal cleaning product standards {text:bibliography-mark} . *2. 10 Carbon Footprint:* Johnson & Johnson has established a CO2 Reduction Capital Funding Process at the Group Finance level in 2004. The company targeted at $40 million per year for its energy and GHG reduction projects. Each J&J affiliated divisions apply for funding relief for these projects. The company completed 31 projects by the end of 2007. As of year-end 2008, 51 projects were completed and the company saved 90,044 tons of CO2 annually. J&J budgeted $99 million for the projects and expects an average 16. 3 percent rate of return {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson’s headquarters located in New Jersey is located near the train station with intent to reduce the carbon footprint. The major source for Johnson & Johnson’s carbon emissions is their fleets of roughly 36,000 vehicles worldwide. With the goal to improve fuel efficiency per mile by over 30% they have adapted their vehicle buying habits. It now boasts 2,100 hybrid vehicles in their fleet by March, 2008. Despite these measures, the company has not yet seen an overall improvement in distance per distance driven {text:bibliography-mark} . The figure 6 of Appendix-A shows the investments made in lower carbon energy efficiency. *2. 11 Packaging*: Johnson & Johnson primarily in the health care products. Since virtually all its products require some type of packaging for protection and preservation, Johnson & Johnson has found significant benefits by reducing packaging materials {text:bibliography-mark} . It began developing its waste reduction program in 1988. Since then, the company has reduced its packaging by 2,750 tons per year, including a reduction in its use of paper by 1,600 tons, plastic by 1,000 tons, metal by 100 tons, and other materials by over 50 tons. Over the first 2 ? years of the program, these reductions saved Johnson & Johnson an estimated $2. 8 million in material costs alone {text:bibliography-mark} . So far J&J achieved 93 percent of packaging and 83 percent of office paper to contain more than 30 percent PCR or fiber from certified forests {text:bibliography-mark} . The company began its program by comprehensively reviewing its product packaging, looking for ways to cut back on the amount of materials it purchased, as well as the amount of waste associated with the manufacture and use of these products. One measure Johnson & Johnson adopted was to reduce the weight of paper used to package one of its gauze products. Millions of these particular products are sold every year and the company realized that even a small change would make a big difference. The company reduced from 30-pound paper to 28-pound paper, Johnson & Johnson faced dramatic results: a reduction in waste of 115 tons of paper, saving $450,000 annually {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 11. 1 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) Packaging: Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) has long been used in packaging for drugs, medical devices and personal care products because of its desirable physical characteristics for protecting product quality, including impermeability to moisture, gas and flavor. But Johnson & Johnson operating companies also understand concerns about the ability to dispose of PVC in an environmentally sound manner and the difficulties with recycling PVC. Its consumer franchise had a goal for 100 percent removal of PVC in primary packaging as well as secondary and tertiary packaging throughout the company. So far J&J has eliminated 84 percent of secondary and tertiary packaging across the company {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 11. 2 J&J Initiatives: Johnson & Johnson also has initiated more complex waste prevention initiatives. As one example, the company eliminated an aluminum pouch that surrounded a plastic layer used to contain Prolene medical sutures. This new procedure was implemented without causing any loss of sterility {text:bibliography-mark} . Band Aid brand adhesives bandages were originally packages in the metal â€Å"tin box. By converting 50 percent of the total packaging to recycled paperboard, i. e. , 35-percent post-consumer, the company significantly reduced the quantity of packaging material required {text:bibliography-mark} . Acuvue contact lenses were previously packaged in polypropylene blisters and polypropylene storage boxes. To reduce polypropylene usage and waste, J&J completely redesigned the blister holding the lenses and their fluid to permit opposing blist ers to nest. This change reduced the amount of polypropylene generated as waste during the manufacturing process and the size of the packaging required for the lenses {text:bibliography-mark} Stayfree feminine hygiene product was previously packaged in a low-density polyethylene (LDPE) bag topped with a cotton drawstring and a â€Å"cuff† to carry the drawstring. The bag was redesigned to use a lower gauge LDPE, and the cuff and the drawstring were eliminated {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 11. 3 Waste Reduced: Prolene: 16,000 pounds of very high grade aluminum foil reduced annually, a 52 percent reduction {text:bibliography-mark} Band Aid brand adhesives bandages: 1. 6 million pounds of metal packaging are saved annually {text:bibliography-mark} Acuvue: Blisters – 264,000 pounds of polypropylene reduced annually, a 33 percent reduction {text:bibliography-mark} Stayfree: 440,000 pounds of LDPE and cotton string reduced annually, a 24 percent reduction {text:bibliography-mark} 2. 11. 4 Annual Savings: Packaging redesigns for Prolene, Band Aid, Acuvue and Stayfree save Johnson & Johnson over $3. million annually {text:bibliography-mark} . The annual cost savings associated with reduced packaging for each product are indicated below: 2. 12 Usage of Chemicals*, *Ingredients/ Materials: Johnson & Johnson maintains a list of regulated chemicals. In addition, the company works to anticipate chemicals that are not currently regulated but may be regulated in the future. The corporation has cr eated an â€Å"emerging issues process†, headed by an environmental toxicologist who is part of the worldwide corporate Environmental Health and Safety group and has the responsibility to evaluate new reports on chemicals. From this review process, the company has created a â€Å"Watch List† of chemicals that have been identified as being of concern by non-government organizations (NGOs) {text:bibliography-mark} . *2. 12. 1 Design tools for evaluating chemicals of concern and designing greener products:* chemicals file Johnson & Johnson has developed several tools to assist product designers in eliminating chemicals and materials of concern. The first tool is a â€Å"Design for Environment† software tool. Designers can input a chemical and see whether it is heavily or lightly regulated. There is a color-coded scheme which indicates the regulatory level. Red indicates the chemical is banned by a government agency somewhere in the world; black means highly regulated or on the â€Å"Watch List†; grey indicates the chemical is less regulated; yellow indicates minimal regulation; and, green indicates the chemical is not regulated. The goal is to evaluate the product lifecycle and to identify and reduce impacts from raw material selection, use and disposal {text:bibliography-mark} . The consumer segment of Johnson & Johnson convened an Ingredients Issue Task Force that has developed a rating system for greener materials. This group has reviewed every ingredient in Johnson & Johnson’s consumer products and has used resources such as the US EPA’s PBT profiler and other tools to identify chemical hazards {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 13 Recycling: Johnson & Johnson has a goal to have 90 percent of office paper and 75 percent of paper-based packaging containing more than 30 percent post-consumer recycled (PCR) content or containing fiber from certified forests by the end of 2010 {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson believes that all its employees have an impact on the sustainable results. It has undertaken measures to best utilize the every product in their daily business activities. J&J has increased recycling by 25 percent. J&J has achieved it with the following steps: Encourages employees to recycle material using two side copying feature Using a reusable cups for beverages Encouraging staff members who purge old files to re-use folders again Recycling paper clips, binder clips, envelopes, cardboards, newspaper, magazines and other similar items. These items are collected from the recycle bins right next to the employee desks and re-used. Recycles computers, carpets, furniture etc {text:bibliography-mark} 2. 14 Maintenance of Scoreboard: In 2009, the corporation has rolled out a scorecard for green products. This scorecard was developed to give designers and marketers a â€Å"cleaner line of sight† in creating new products and goes beyond tools that assess chemical hazards. A product receives points along five dimensions. Seven points are needed to be identified as a â€Å"greener† product. The dimensions include: materials/ingredients, energy, waste, water, and packaging. This process includes a high level life cycle assessment to identify the areas of greatest environmental impact {text:bibliography-mark} . *2. 15 Climate Savers: Elements *of Fulfillment Strategies Johnson & Johnson identifies and extreme weather event that disrupts business as the greatest climate related risk the firm faces. Each major operation has a business continuity strategy in place and each business segment manufacture its products in more than one location {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson is tracking and publicizing its CO2 reduction goal worldwide to every level of management. The goal is also being included in the company's annual environmental report {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson has joined the following external initiatives: The Climate Group (UK); The Climate Registry; US EPA Green Power Partnership; WWF’s Climate Savers; WRI’s Green Power market Development Group; CDP’s Supply Chain Leadership Collaboration; and US climate Action Partnership {text:bibliography-mark} The company covering buildings, equipment, management practices, maintenance practices, and operational practices developed a comprehensive set of energy efficiency best practices. Sixty-seven percent of the best practices have been completed worldwide. J&J is participating in the LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) certification program for existing buildings with its world headquarters building serving as a pilot project. A task force has also been developed to create guidelines that will allow the company to obtain LEED certification for all new facilities. On-site renewable generation: Installation of four solar systems for a total of 1193 kW at California, New Jersey and Pennsylvania facilities. International on-site generation includes a solar hot water system at J&J Brazil providing 20,240 kWh/yr. of hot water and a solar hot water system at Janssen-Cilag, Portugal providing 8400 kWh/yr. of hot water. Purchasing of Renewable Energy: All Texas operations: 15 percent wind power, 10. 6 Million kWh/year. Cordis, Netherlands: 10 percent wind power, 1. 1 Million kWh/year. Centocor, Netherlands: 100 percent wind power, 12 Million kWh/year. An annual energy week is conducted worldwide to improve employee awareness. The theme last year was â€Å"You Have the Power to Save Energy for a Brighter Future. Activities to increase awareness include conferences in different regions and an active energy Web site, which includes a renewable site and graphics depicting CO2 reduction levels {text:bibliography-mark} . Johnson & Johnson conduct environmental campaigns every year and every facility created a five-year education plan to educate employees about climate change, sustainable forestry etc {text:bibliography-mark} . 2. 16 Johnson & Johnson’s Green Chemistry Initiatives Johnson & Johnson’s pharmaceutical segment participates in the Pharmaceutical Green Chemistry Roundtable and is investing in green chemistry approaches. Because of the high costs of drug development, an investment in a green chemistry approach generally does not occur until a new drug has been approved. Johnson & Johnson entered the US EPA’s Presidential Green Chemistry Challenge Award Program in 2008 for its work to scale up a pharmaceutical ingredient called Darunavir, a new protease inhibitor. The goal of the project was to reduce health, safety and environmental impacts in manufacturing and to reduce sots. This approach resulted in reduced solvent usage, hydrogen gas formation was eliminated, and methylene chloride was replaced with a more benign solvent. This increased the yield of the drug by 40% and reduced manufacturing costs by 81%. The company eliminated 96 tons of methylene chloride, reduced hydrogen gas by 4800 cubic meters and reduced raw materials hazardous waste by 46 tons {text:bibliography-mark} . Green Suggestions and Recommendations: I believe Johnson & Johnson needs to step up instead of waiting for the clients to take the further lead on sustainability. The company should always make wise material choices and to make sure its best utilizing the environmentally friendly materials before it undertakes any new project by posing some questions like: Is the project designed to minimize waste? Can it be smaller, lighter, or made from fewer materials? Does it use renewable resources? Is reuse practical and encouraged? Are the products and packaging refillable, recyclable, or repairable? Is it made with post-consumer recycled or reclaimed materials? How much? Are the materials available in a less toxic form? Can it be made with less toxic materials? Are materials available from a socially and environmentally responsible company? Is it made locally? There are some small gestures which are worth doing to create a sustainable environment. The daily used printing ink must be environmentally friendly: It must reduce emissions, create less toxic waste, use a renewable resource, be easily de-inked, produce less hazardous sludge, and be more biodegradable than conventional ink. Design decisions like reducing the number of colors used to print a job is better on the environment as well as saves the company’s budget. Recycled content is just one of the ways defined to make a good paper. When choosing papers, company should look beyond recycled content and consider recyclability, raw materials, and how the paper is bleached and manufactured. Packing and shipping are also important to think about. Instead of simply accepting the suggested size for a printed piece, company should consider what size will result in the least waste on press. Instead of specking on an easy-to-find, standard material that happens to release VOCs (volatile organic compounds), progressive material choices must be made as part of the initial presentation. Johnson & Johnson should start conducting some recycling programs and should let its consumers know about it through advertisements. The recycle programs are designed in such a way that consumers are encouraged to buy more and more environmental friendly products like plastics that are easily recyclable, boxes or products that are packaged in paper materials certified by the Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) or made from post-consumer waste. This recycling program should make the consumers to return the empty packages and receive discounts or free products in return. Conclusion: All modern buildings are constructed under a number of particularly stringent environmental constraints. These buildings use much less energy and are easy to maintain. The building’s success depended on a combination of J design philosophy which is reflected in the company’s â€Å"New Facilities Design Criteria†, careful modeling of building systems to envision how each works on its own and what its impact is on the others, and a steadfast vision of the need to produce a robust structure that will function well for many decades. Hardheaded cost benefits methods were applied to every system in the buildings. Most often focused on the importance of reliability and smooth operation over the long term. For example: Both of the two large chillers in New Jersey and La Jolla, California had VSDs installed to facilitate maintenance and provide flexibility with controls, though cost/benefit analysis did not support this decision. A condensate recycling system was installed in spite of showing a 15-year payback because J wants to be a good corporate citizen. Using reclaimed water provided cost savings, improved environmental performance, and also reduces the chances of future water crisis. One hundred percent completion of best practices does not guarantee Johnson & Johnson with a cost effective and energy efficient design. Firstly, it is important to setup ambitious goals to provide a compass for an organization. Johnson & Johnson Healthy planet 2010 goal that all operating companies have a plan to improve their product and process environmental profiles and eliminate high priority chemicals is a useful way to encourage improvements and track progress in a highly decentralized organization. Secondly, green design tools are important in implementing these goals. Johnson & Johnson has developed a number of valuable tools to help in designing greener products including a design for environment tool and a rating system for greener ingredients. Thirdly, it is necessary to maintain a scoreboard to measure greener products in an additional means of clarifying and implementing these board goals. Johnson & Johnson has developed a scoreboard for greener products with 5 dimensions: materials/ingredients, energy, waste, water, and packaging. Fourthly, participation is a valuable opportunity for information exchange. The company’s active participation in Product Sustainability Roundtable, a cross sector initiative, has been a valuable way to share information on improving product sustainability. Bibliography Appendix -A Figure 1: {draw:frame} Figure 2: {draw:frame} Figure 3: {draw:frame} Figure 4: {draw:frame} Figure 5: {draw:frame} Figure 6: {draw:frame} Figure 7: {draw:frame} Appendix B: {draw:frame} {draw:frame}

Bus210 Motivational Case Study Essay

I believe in the â€Å"Two Men and a Truck† case study, the motivational theory that Mrs. Sheets’ uses is the goal setting theory. Her initial goal was to help support her sons’ part-time jobs. She created a marketing campaign, although she may not have seen it as such, by designing the stick figure drawing that is still being used today in the company. As a single mother, she did not want to turn away the phone calls that continued to be received, even after her sons went away to college and therefore, she purchased an inexpensive truck and hired two workers to maintain the business operations. Mrs. Sheets expanded the company and set out a goal of being the most customer-friendly moving company. To assist with this goal, she arranged trainings for her employees, and franchisee employees, where they learn basic customer service tools and how to be a high-functioning team member. These tools include how to properly answer the phone and to always shake the customer’s hand when the work is completed. She also asks employees to complete a survey card so the organization can use the feedback as coaching opportunities. All of these tools helped Mrs. Sheets’ company become one of the most successful moving companies in the area. In the Siemens case study, the motivational theory that is described is Management by objectives. Mr. Kleinfield took over a Siemens unit in 1998 and immediately requested a change in work shifts, including working weekends. The employees were shocked by what was being requested but also recognized that due to a competitor, their jobs were in jeopardy from a lack of production. Mr. Kleinfield expressed an interest in the work being performed by being in the factory and asking questions related to the operations. This interest helped win over the employees and with the new schedules, production times were cut from six weeks to one. Although the employees did not know what was going on, Mr. Kleinfield recognized what the ultimate goal of the production facility was and put a plan into action as soon as he took it over to make it a success. By demonstrating this leadership, he ultimately was offered the CEO position, even though he never worked in any facility for very long, especially as a Consultant, but did have experience in every department that was associated with Siemens.

ECON 337 3 Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

ECON 337 3 - Assignment Example It emerges that the new reforms in the 80’s led to the reduction of poverty and inequality due to the foreign trade and investment strategies. However, the rural areas were also recovering from the poverty cycle as influenced by the spurt in agricultural growth. The political economy played an instrumental part through the land redistributions that ensured every family had an agricultural venture. As a result, the internal aspects enabled the country to improve on its economic objectives rather than the presumed global integration. Similarly, the domestic public investment policies, especially in education, infrastructure and agricultural research propelled the growth and rural poverty reduction. The state of poverty and well being in India were spurred by the social indicators in employment opportunities, gender inequality and maternal health had registered improvements (Bardhan 26). The country was ensuring that the citizens would be productive by taking advantage of the soc ial developments in the important sectors. The resultant impacts were that the Indians introduced strategies that empowered everyone to venture into economical businesses in the region. Although poverty and social well-being remains to be a priority of the government, the economic growth tends to alleviate the imbalance. This implies that reforms encouraging domestic investments are making the local citizens to come up with business ideas that the government can help to finance for prosperity. The reasoning behind Bardhan arguments is that global integration only facilitated increase in spending. The improvements in social indicators and social well-being were factors that promoted global integration because the country was now ready to consider various opportunities (Bardhan 30). This implies that, without the domestic reforms and investments, global integration could not be achieved. However, the slow pace in some sectors

Dissertation topic in Science Education, PhD Research Paper

Dissertation topic in Science Education, PhD - Research Paper Example Beneze et al identify that â€Å"for most students, school science is like being chained inside Platos cave, only able to experience or interpret the world of science from flickering shadowy images† (2003, p. 285). In a study of 3 years of large scale analysis of the teaching of science, they concluded that children do not get so familiar with the use of abstract ideas and they do better with practice. In an old journal that examined the evolution of the teaching of science in elementary schools, it was apparent that the original approach of teaching science in the 1800s was to get children to perceive nature â€Å"from the childs standpoint† (Curtis, 1950). However, further investigations indicated that as times evolved and institutions of higher learning got structured and teaching methods were institutionalized, middle schools were required to prepare their pupils for advanced courses in science (Curtis, 1950). Thus, although practical studies and practical teaching is important and vital, there is the need for the teaching methods to be relevant to higher education and the real world. The teacher will have to draw a balance between three main things in the teaching of science: Internships for teachers are normally conducted in an academic or school-setting. There is limited exposure to the industry and other institutions of higher learning (Minuskin, 2009). There is an inherent challenge in the funding of these internships. Hence, if it is going to be upgraded to a system that will involve institutions of higher learning, the industry and the development of practical ideas, there will be more cost constraints. This can be reasonably spread through the use of online methods and other developed systems that can be conveniently replicated (Nadarajan, 2011). Also, partnerships between the community and institutions can help to share the costs (Hogue, 2012). The aim of the

Bio 101 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Bio 101 - Essay Example Not only is fast food prepared quickly, but it is also available easily on every busy street corner and in various fast food restaurants and fast food outlets in abundance. Moreover, it more than satisfies a â€Å"hungry man’s appetite†. More than a necessity, fast food has become a social and cultural standard. Originating from the West, the fast food trend has expanded and spread in all countries of the world as a new fashion or a new social standard. However, the negative aspects of fast food are many. Even before the health aspects are considered, there are a number of social stigmas attached to the trend of fast food. The concept of meal preparation in the home is not as prominent as it previously was. This tends to reduce the bonding between families of cooking and eating together. It also means that mothers who used to pass on their cooking skills to their daughters do not find time to do so anymore or do not find it as important. Moreover, this fast food trend has put a few large corporations in power and destroyed the local food industry of countries. These large corporations hire unskilled workers in Third World countries and offer them low wages which leads to the exploitation of workers in these countries; while these corporations make large profits. These are only a few of the social problems caused by the trend of fast food. The health stigmas are far more dangerous and harmful. Fast food is one of the main factors causing obesity in adolescents in countries all over the world. Since fast food outlets are located close to schools and colleges, adolescents tend to skip breakfast and indulge in the intake of fast food all day resulting in the intake of an excessive amount of calories which cause obesity (Richardson, 2006). Moreover, greasy fast food is known to cause high cholesterol which is a cause for high blood pressure and heart disease. Mothers were not wrong when

Econ Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Econ Questions - Essay Example Pugelovia will export rice and import cloth. 9.b. An increase in endowment of capital would result in a production-possibility curve that is biased toward machinery or production of large volume of machinery. The large volume of machinery produced is due to the effect of more clothing being given up in order to produce machineries. 9.e. US national well being may decline as a result of the increase in endowment of capital. As the capital/labour ratio in the international sector declines, the wages in the US would decrease causing a declining income for workers. 3. A tariff would increase the production output domestically. When a country imposes tariff, the domestic price of the product would increase in order to include the tariff. Local producers who do not pay the import tariff would have an incentive to increase their output in order to exploit the higher domestic price. The tariff would give domestic producers extra surplus on all the goods they would have produced even without the tariff plus smaller net gains on additional sales. Graphically, the domestic supply would increase from point J to point C, when tariff is imposed. The production effect is the area ABCJ. The production effect is computed by { = [q1*t] + [(q2 – q1)*t/2]] 4. A tariff would decrease the consumption domestically. When a country imposes tariff, the domestic price would increase such that consumer demand will decline due to higher price. The tariff costs consumers both the full tariff on every goods they continue to buy and the net enjoyment on goods they would have bought at the lower tariff-free price but do not buy at the higher price that includes the tariff. Graphically, the domestic demand would decrease along the demand curve from point H to point F, when tariff is imposed. The consumption effect is the area ABFH. The consumption effect is computed by { = [q3*t] + (q4 – q3)*t/2] 5. Imposing a tariff high

Case study Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 4

Case study - Assignment Example Finally, I will have to evaluate the decision once a diet program is adopted to ascertain the satisfaction it is intended (Chater 15). In a business, value is created through performing actions, which increase its worth of services and goods. Weight Watchers have created value employ the use of the Internet in enabling members to check meals at popular restaurants, point values for food, as well as add meals or snacks to their daily food journals online (Brazin 34). They have also created similar cell phone applications and services for training on fitness. Jenny Craig has created value through offering additional one-on-one counseling services to members and customizing diet programs to fit various social groups like men, women, or teenagers (Fayolle 30). The determinant attributes that set Jenny Craig’s and Weight Watchers’ programs apart include diet program, cost, average weight loss, support, the percentage of participants still in the program after four weeks, as well as long term assistance. The two diet companies through several ways such as building realistic expectations, which are neither too high nor too low, can enhance customer satisfaction. It will be prudent for them to note that unrealistically high expectations from consumers of their services set through personal selling or advertisement may initially lead to higher sales, but in the result in dissatisfaction if the diet programs do not meet the expectations (Randall 54). They can also do this by demonstrating correct implementation of their diet programs through actual recordings of success in previous cases. This will enable them to sell more by standing behind their services and products through provision of money-back warranties and guarantees. Customer satisfaction can also be improved through encouraging feedback from them. This will help in cutting down on negative word of mouth as well as

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(When I saw a lady in a ballgown....I was frankly terrified.... and I wanted to call a policeman) Are woman represented as the agents or the victims of sexual - Essay Example (eNotes, 2009.) Leo Tolstoy was born at Yasnaya Polyana, in Tula Province. He was the fourth in five children. His parents died when he was a child, and he was brought up by relatives. In 1844 Tolstoy started his studies of law and oriental languages at Kazan University, but he never took a degree. Dissatisfied with the standard of education, he returned in the middle of his studies back to Yasnaya Polyana, and then spent much of his time in Moscow and St. Petersburg. In 1847 Tolstoy was treated for venereal disease. After contracting heavy gambling debts, Tolstoy accompanied in 1851 his elder brother Nikolay to the Caucasus, and joined an artillery regiment. In the 1850s Tolstoy also began his literary career. The title of Count had been conferred on his ancestor in the early 18th century by Peter the Great. The Kreutzer Sonata is a tale of sexual obsession and jealousy. A provincial businessman (Posdnicheff) becomes obsessed with his wifes relationship with a violinist, with whom she plays duos. The climax of his jealousy comes during a performance by his wife and her violinist partner of Beethovens Violin Sonata no.9 in A major, known as the Kreutzer sonata, after which Posdnicheff murders his wife. The idea for The Kreutzer Sonata was given to Tolstoy by the actor V.N. Andreev-Burlak during his visit at Yasnaya Polyana in June 1887. In the spring of 1888 an amateur performance of Beethovens Kreutzer Sonata took place in Tolstoys home and it made the author return to an idea he had had in the 1860s. The novel is written in the form of a frame-story and set on a train. The conversations among the passengers develop into a discussion of the institution of marriage. Posdnicheff, the chief character, tells of his youth and his subsequent remorse and self-disgust. Posdnicheff believes that his wife is having an affair with a musician and he tries to strangle her, and then

Compare and contrast the societies of Mesoamerica and the Eastern Assignment

Compare and contrast the societies of Mesoamerica and the Eastern Woodlands in 1491 - Assignment Example Women did not participate in building homes but assisted in working in the fields. The Eastern Woodland Indians were mainly hunters and gatherers2. The natives mostly spoke Algonquin or Iroquois. The Mesoamerican Indians were inhabitants of Mexico and Northern Central America. The main tribes were Mayans, Olmec, Amazonians, and Peruvians. They lived in caves and other structures curved out of stone. Mesoamerican Indians were the first to cultivate corn, potatoes, varieties of beans, squash, pumpkins, tomatoes, chocolate, rubber, cotton and tobacco. The Indians in Mexico developed corn by a breeding process so sophisticated that the journal of science described it as â€Å"mans first and perhaps the greatest feat at genetic engineering†. The natives made different discoveries based on different experiences and ways of life. The Mesoamerican and Eastern Woodland Indians had occupied different parts of America with the eastern Indians occupying the rain forest. Due to this woodland Indians discovered different uses for wood. They made hunting tools, houses, canoes and cooking utensils. The natives who lived near water bodies used the canoes for transport. The Mesoamericans mainly used tools curved out of stone for example, farming tools that were curved out of stone. Both inhabitants practiced farming for food, but they practiced it differently. The Eastern Woodland Indians cleared the forest in order to create more space for farming or when the land got exhausted while the Mesoamericans specifically the Amazonian Indians learned how to farm in the rain forest without destroying it, a process scientists are studying today in the hope of regaining this lost knowledge. The Mesoamericans were very advanced in agriculture. The Native Indians are said to have been the ‘mother of civilization.’ The Mesoamerican Indians having secured their food supply, turned to intellectual pursuits. They invented their own writing, astronomy

International business environment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

International business environment - Essay Example Since 2010, the company has been making profits that are annually reported. General motors however can reduce tax and pay for it in future dates by carrying forward the past losses and applying it on future dates. It was estimated by wall street journal in the past that the tax break that the company will enjoy in the next 20 years will be close to $45 billion including credits for pension costs (Hill, Gareth, & Jones, 2009). In 2010 alone, general motors reported an earning of 4.7 billion us dollars. In the same year 2010, the company was ranked the second in the list of companies that produce 8.5 million units across the world. In the following year 2011, it was ranked the first with production of 9.025 units that were sold globally (Gall, 2011). These units sold in 2011 command an 11.9% of the market share in the motor vehicle industry across the world (Gall, 2011). General motors performance was boosted by its brand called Chevrolet that recorded a global sale of 4.76 million in 2011. Cadillac, Chevrolet, Buick, and GMC are the four main divisions of gm products (Gall, 2011). The GM always do some restructuring and this have helped the company a lot to retain the quality of vehicles it produces and have also enabled the company to produce safe and fuel efficient cars. General motors products have done very well in Asian countries over the past decade. In china, it manufacture its products through shanghai GM which is a local manufacturer and in Japan it manufacture through GM Chevrolet shop. Its sales in China rose 28.8 percent to a record 2,351,610 units in 2010 (Mueller, 2008). To ensure that it keep up with the research, GM set up a research centre in shanghai to help develop electric vehicles and gasoline-hybrid cars engines and other fresh technologies. Since fuel prices skyrocketed in 2000 and 2010, general motors have shifted its interest to produce small capacity vehicles in the United States (Mueller, 2008). This program will help create thousands of jobs and help the company increase its sales. In 2008, the company made it public that it was considering phasing out some brands that includes Pontiac in an effort to get 25 billion dollar loan through the help of congress (Mueller, 2008). It also made other very serious proposals in 2009 that include the phasing out of Saturn, sale of Saab and either to phase out or sale Hummer. Pontiac was therefore to cut its model and possibly remain with one but had to shift to production of youthful and sporty models. General Motors would cut out another 7,000 to 8,000 factory jobs in the United States under a revised business plan set up by Obama administration (Kerzner, 2010). Fritz Henderson the CEO of the company said that Pontiac brand would be closed by 2010, terming it an â€Å"extremely personal decision.† In addition to speeding up decisions on Saturn, Saab and Hummer, GM will be left with four brands – Chevrolet, Buick, GMC and Cadillac (Kerzner, 2010). Shanghai Gen eral Motors' sales surpassed those of sister company Shanghai Volkswagen's in 2005 and was in that year China's top selling joint venture. Its sales keep going up in 2006 and 2007 but later in 2008 recorded slight reduction in its sales trailing shanghai VW, but it was later to return to number one slot in 2010 and have kept that position to today (Kerzner, 2010). Shanghai GM introduced Chevrolet brand in the country in 2005 and in that year it also started domestic production of the Cadillac

Reliability Issues †Centrifugal Slurry Pumps Essay Example for Free

Reliability Issues – Centrifugal Slurry Pumps Essay Introduction Pumps were probably the first machine ever developed, and are now the second most common machine in use around the world, out-numbered only by the electric motor. The very earliest type of pump is now known as a water wheel, Persian wheel or â€Å"noria†, consisting of a wheel of buckets that rotates to pick up water from a stream and dump it into a trough. Another early pump was the â€Å"Archimedean screw†, similar to the modern screw conveyor except that the flights were often fixed to the tube so that the whole arrangement would turn together. Both of these devices are still used, most commonly in basic agricultural applications. Pumps are now produced in an enormous range of types and sizes, for a very wide scope of applications, and this makes it difficult for any individual reference document or organisation to cover â€Å"pumps and pumping† as a general topic. So the broad field of pumping is classified into sub-divisions and then dealt with at that level. In the mining industry, the upper end of the pump scale includes impellers with diameters over 2.5m, slurry lines 10km long, particle size up to 100mm, flow rates handling more than 7000tph, and motors over 10MW. Finer slurries of around 1mm particle size are pumped for hundreds of kilometres in some operations. There are many ways to classify pumps. This just one of them. This document only addresses centrifugal pumps, with a focus on single-stage radial-flow slurry pumps. Centrifugal pumps are capable of meeting duties of up to 1.4 m /s at 30MPa, and higher volumes at lower 3 pressures. The maximum flow rate at low discharge pressure is about 180 m /s. Industrial applications requiring high delivery pressures generally use reciprocating fixed-displacement pumps, but they are limited in the amount of flow they can put out per unit. In general purpose applications, where different types of pumps could all deliver the performance sought, centrifugal pumps are usually the preferred choice due to lower lifecycle costs. Basic Requirements for Reliability Assuming correct pump manufacture and installation, the basic requirements for reliable long-term operation of centrifugal pumps are: 1. Continuous operation at best-efficiency point (BEP) 2. Adequate net positive suction head (NPSH) 3. Low velocity fluid flow within the pump and throughout the system 4. Processing of fluids that are benign ie: a) Chemically and physically stable b) At near-ambient temperatures c) Free of particles likely to cause wear or blockage Pumps of a basic design satisfying all these requirements have run for 50 years and more without major component replacement. The first three requirements are satisfied by matching pump performance to expected duty. Where item 4 cannot be addressed through pre-treatment of the fluid, the pump configuration, geometry and materials must be optimised to give best results. Obviously, item 4.c) is a dominating issue for slurry pumps as it cannot be eliminated and must be managed. Centrifugal Pump Construction Centrifugal pumps have two main sub-assemblies – the rotating parts (impeller, shaft, bearings), and the fixed parts (casing, piping connections, stand, foundations. Pumps of all types may be single stage or multi-stage. Multiple stages are used where it is not practical to generate the necessary discharge pressure using a single impeller. The simplest way to imagine a multi-stage pump is as one pump with its discharge feeding straight into the suction of a second pump so that the overall discharge pressure is increased while the flow rate stays the same. However, this arrangement is properly described as â€Å"single stage pumps in series†. A true multi-stage pump consists of multiple impellers mounted on a single shaft, positioned in a single casing made up of multiple chambers. Multi-stage pumps of this type are not used with slurries, but sometimes slurry pumps are mounted in series. Casing There are two types of casing designs â€Å"volute† and â€Å"diffuser†. A volute casing has a snail’s shell shape, while a diffuser casing has internal vanes. Diffuser casings are rarely used on single-stage radial pumps, and are not commonly used for handling slurries due to the flow restriction and high wear rates that would result. Slurry pumps have volute casings which house the impeller and have a spiral-shaped outer volume that extends 360 degrees and increases in cross-sectional area as it approaches the discharge flange. At full circle the volute overlaps itself, creating the cut-point, also known as â€Å"cut-water point† or â€Å"tongue†. The ideal shape is to have a steady linear increase in cross-sectional area for 360 degrees around the circumference starting from the cut-water point, but this can be difficult to manufacture. Compared to a clear water pump, a slurry pump has a much larger radial gap between cut-water point and impelle r, to reduce risk of blockage. Where a pump is identified as oversize for its duty, and is suffering high recirculation wear, it may be possible to fit liners with an extended cut-water point that throttles the flow. In theory, when a pump operates at its best efficiency point (BEP), the pressure acting on the impeller and casing are uniform. However, in practice the pressure is rarely completely uniform, and if a pump is operating away from its BEP the imbalanced in the radial forces acting on the impeller become significant. These forces are larger for bigger pumps operating at higher pressures. Running a large pump below rated capacity can create unbalanced radial forces that may (over time) damage the bearings or snap the shaft. If it is known that a pump may need to occasionally operate well away from its BEP, the manufacturer should include an oversize shaft arrangement in the design, but with commercial competition driving purchase decisions this may have to be specifically requested. Another option for reducing imbalanced radial forces is to use a twin-volute design, which consists of a wall splitting the volute in half for about half its circumference, ending after the cut-point but before the discharge flange. This is not practical for most slurry applications. Casings must be designed to allow the impeller to be installed inside, and so are manufactured in at least two parts. Solid casings have a removable cover, either on the suction side or shaft side or both, but the volute shape is a one-piece casting. Casings may also be split, either axially or radially. Axially split housings make inspection easier because the upper piece can usually be removed without disturbing the shaft or piping too much. Split casings may tend to â€Å"breathe† at high pressures, resulting in leakage, air entrainment, vibration, misalignment etc. Casings are normally provided with ribbing at the location of highest stresses, to minimise this. Open or semi-open impellers require close clearances against the casing to ensure pumping efficiency. The casings generally include a side-plate that can be adjusted for minimal clearance using jacking screws or shims, especially in wearing applications eg slurries. Impeller Impellers are classified according to their design features ie: ï‚ · Suction flow orientation o Single suction ie inlet on one side only o Double suction ie inlet on both sides ï‚ · The direction of exit flow relative to the shaft axis ie: o Radial flow o Axial flow o Mixed flow ï‚ · Vane shape ie: o Single curvature vanes, also called straight vanes – the impeller surfaces that accelerate the fluid are straight and parallel to the axis of rotation o Francis or screw vane – the surfaces that accelerate the fluid are curved in relation to the axis of rotation ï‚ · Mechanical construction o Enclosed ie with side walls or â€Å"shrouds† o Open ie no shrouds o Semi-open ie shroud on one side only o Partially shrouded ie shroud not extending to impeller tips The open area through which the fluid flows into the impeller is called the suction eye. For a closed-shroud impeller, this is simply the hole in the shroud. The suction eye area is an important featur e of the pump design. The area taken up by the shaft, if it protrudes through the eye, is deducted when calculating eye area. Impellers can be single suction or double suction. A single suction impeller has an inlet eye on one side only, with the shaft extending out the opposite side so the impeller overhangs. A double suction impeller can be thought of as two mirror-image single suction impellers mounted back-to-back. They accept fluid from both sides and usually have a shaft that extends straight through the impeller with bearings providing support on both sides. Double suction impellers are usually fed fluid from a single inlet flange, with the fluid flow being split into two streams by channelling inside the casing. Double suction units provide advantages in reduced fluid velocity at the impeller eye, and better balancing of axial hydraulic forces, while single suction units are simpler in design, manufacture and maintenance. Most if not all slurry pumps are single suction type. Some pumps may have an inducer, which is an axial flow impeller with a few blades installed between the suction inlet and the main impeller, intended to improve the suction head seen by the main impeller. Impeller shrouds often incorporate thin â€Å"pump-out vanes† cast into the outside of the shrouds. Their purpose is to help clear any solids from the back hub of the impeller (opposite the inlet eye), reduce pressure at the seal area, reduce axial thrust, and discourage recirculation. Some impellers have similar vanes on the eye side as well as the shaft side – in this case, those on the shaft side are usually called â€Å"expeller vanes†. In clear water pumps, a cylindrical ring is usually cast or machined into the outside surface of the shrouds, coinciding with a matching feature in the casing, to help seal off the discharge fluid from the suction fluid and prevent internal circulation. Clearances here are tight in order to ensure pumping efficiency – typically around 0.25mm on radius for most common sizes of industrial pumps. In larger pumps the casing (and sometimes also the impeller) is usually protected at this point by replaceable â€Å"wear rings†, which may be high-wear items, and need to be replaced before efficiencies fall too low. It is good practice to replace wear rings once the clearance reaches twice the original specification. Wear rings are provided in a wide range of designs and materials according to the pressures, speeds and fluids involved. The wear rings on impeller and casing are often made from differing materials that are not subject to galling, to reduce problems should contact occur. Wear ring features may include labyrinths, water injection, inspection ports, adjustment mechanisms etc. Pumps handling light slurries may make use of wear rings, sometimes with water injection to reduce wear from the slurry. Pumps handling heavier slurries usually just use pump-out vanes. Slurry pump impellers must be designed to resist wear and tear, and this requires some pumping efficiency features to be sacrificed. For example, vane edges will be blunter, vanes and shrouds will be generally thicker, and the number of vanes will be decreased in order to open up the channels between them. Passages through slurry pumps, including impeller vane spacing, are larger than for clear water pumps. Open impellers are sometimes used for very stringy materials, but tend to be weak and wear quickly, and so are not very common. Vane shape is obviously a major element of impeller design. Two critical factors are the blade entry angle (ß1) and blade exit angle (ß2), as measured between the centre-line of the vane and a tangent to the inner or outer diameter (respectively) drawn from their tips, in the oppo site direction to rotation. Most modern pumps have impellers with ß2 smaller than ninety degrees – ie backward-curved blades. Theoretically, a forward-curved blade would give higher head, but at less efficiency. Some pumps have ß2 at ninety degrees, and these are sometimes referred to as â€Å"expellers†. Many clear-water impeller designs rely on close running clearances between vane tips and casing to minimise recirculation from one â€Å"vane chamber† to the next, and maximise efficiency. Even small amounts of vane tip wear can have an effect on head and overall efficiency. The outer and inner vane tips should be sharp, not rounded or chamfered. Replacing a pump which is too large for its duty can be a major exercise. It usually requires changes to the foundations, drive arrangement and piping, spares holdings, and so on. A model of the ideal size may be just not available. As an alternative, in some cases it may viable to install a reduced-diameter impeller without changing other components. If done correctly, trimming the impeller will move the pump’s BEP to match the actual system operating point. The efficiency at the new BEP will be lower than the BEP with the original impeller, but higher than was being achieved in practice when operating well away from the original BEP. The performance variation can be estimated using the â€Å"affinity laws† which often apply to a specific impeller before and after machining: Flow rate: Pump head: Motor power: Q1 / Q2 = n1 D1 / n2 D2 H1 / H2 = (n1 D1 / n2 D2) P1 / P2 = (n1 D1 / n2 D2) 2 So if running at the same speed, trimming an impeller by a certain proportion will result in a corresponding drop in flow rate, a greater decrease in head produced, and an even greater decrease in the motor power consumed. However, these equations are based on several assumptions and some caution is called for. Impellers are complex three-dimensional objects and their effects on the liquid are due to other factors that are also affected by machining, beyond just the outside diameter – eg open area, discharge blade angle and so on. The following considerations should apply. ï‚ · Diameter reductions should not exceed 10%. Reductions beyond 20% are generally considered extreme. Some references state 30% as the maximum reduction advisable. ï‚ · Some overlap in the vanes should be retained. ï‚ · The angle between the vane centreline and the tangent to the outer diameter drawn at its tip should be restored to original by filing, with most filing occurring on the trailing si de of the vane.   The vanes will probably be thicker after cutting, and should be filed back to original shape, by filing on the traling side of the vane. ï‚ · Vane tips should be kept sharp, not rounded or chamfered. Outer tips should be sharpened by filing on the trailing side, and inner tips by filing mostly on the leading side.   Inefficiencies will take the form of increased disc friction, increased flow path length within the casing, and more recirculation across vane tips. Impellers apply forces to the fluid and are subject to the equal and opposite forces themselves. The typical single-suction impeller engages with fluid entering the pump and at first accelerates it axially into the pump, before diverting it into the radial direction. The impeller pushes the fluid into the pump, and at the same time pushes itself axially back toward the inlet point. Another way of looking at this effect is to consider that the impeller is mostly exposed to pressurised fluid all over the shroud surfaces, but not at the eye on the suction side. The thrust on the impeller must be resisted by the shaft arrangement, which must always include bearings capable of serious thrust loading. Double-suction pumps typically have less axial loading, but can still experience axial thrust, especially if flow is restricted more on one side due to internal differences in the pump, or restrictions in fluid supply on one side. Clean water pump designs may incorporate features to reduce this imbalance, such as having wear rings on both sides of the impeller, with the pressure within t he volume they enclose largely equalised by â€Å"balancing holes† passing right through the impeller. Another method is the use of a balancing disc. This is a disc mounted on the shaft in a separate chamber, with a geometry and clearances designed to counterbalance thrust effects. However, these are not practical for slurry pumps, which may use pump-out vanes instead, to lower the pressure toward the inner area of the non-suction shroud. Axial thrust loads usually consist of a steady state component plus dynamic fluctuations. Heavy axial loading is often associated with recirculation. Where failure occurs it is usually a result of overloading and over-heating of bearing components. Measures to correct excessive axial loading include:   Restoring BEP operating conditions (which may include selecting a more appropriate pump size or trimming the impeller)   Ensuring internal clearances / wear are not excessive ï‚ · Verifying correct bearing type and installation including clearances / pre-load To further complicate this issue of axial thrust, single-suction pumps handling fluids with a high suction head may experience thrust on the impeller in the opposite direction, away from the inlet. And then there are pumps with highly variable duties and suction conditions that may experience impeller thrust in different directions at different times. Shaft The shaft transmits mechanical power to the impeller from the driving motor or engine. It must also support the impeller and restrict its axial and radial movement. The loads on the shaft include self-weight of the rotating components, torque, and forces transmitted to / from the fluid. Design of a shaft requires consideration of maximum allowable deflection, the span or overhang, the location and direction of all loads, any temperature variations, and the critical speed. Loads are normally at their maximum on start-up. All objects have a natural frequency at which they will vibrate after being struck. Machines made of several components with complex shapes normally have several natural frequencies, some of which dominate. In the case of pumps, if the rotational speed of the impeller matches a dominant natural frequency, small imbalances may be amplified to a level where they interfere with operation and/or reliability. These are known as â€Å"critical speeds†. Steady operating speeds between 75% and 120% of the first critical speed should be avoided. Pumps with longer overhang on the shafts have lower critical speeds. Shafts are referred to as rigid or flexible, according to whether the running speed is lower or higher than the first critical speed. Pumps with a flexible shaft must pass through a critical speed on each start-up. This is not usually a problem because frictional forces with the fluid and the bearings act as dampers for a period sufficient for transition through the critical speed. Pumps with speeds below 1750rpm, which includes most slurry pumps, are usually of the rigid-shaft design. The shaft must be designed so that any deflection will not bring moving parts into contact, for example at wearing rings, or cause non-concentricity in critical areas such as the shaft seal. As a general rule, shaft deflection should not exceed 0.15mm even under the most extreme conditions. Deflection and critical speed are related stiffening a shaft to reduce deflection will also raise its critical speed. For pumps with overhung impellers, as is the case for most slurry pumps, this often results in the shaft diameter between bearings being quite large. The fluid passing through a pump creates a hydrodynamic bearing effect, known as the â€Å"Lomakin Effect†. That is, to some extent, the impeller rotating in the casing with fluid present is like a shaft rotating in a journal bearing with oil present. The result is that the shaft is better supported when running than when idle, so that the shaft deflection will be less, and the critical speed of the shaft assembly will be higher. However, the Lomakin Effect varies with pump head and internal clearances, both of which diminish with wear. Therefore the effective critical speed may be expected to decrease with time in service. To allow assembly, shafts step up in diameter from coupling to bearing to impeller, so tha t any torque problems are very likely to appear first at the coupling rather than the impeller, at least in single stage pumps. Shaft Seal and Sleeve The shaft connects the drive to the impeller, and so must pass through the pressurised casing. Achieving a reliable seal between shaft and casing is one of the most problematic areas in pumping. Centrifugal pumps have two types of seals – mechanical seals and packing seals. Many designs of mechanical seals have been attempted for slurry pumps, without comprehensive success, and the remainder of this discussion concentrates mainly on packing seals and stuffing boxes. Note, however, that packing is only suitable within pressure and temperature limitations. Depending on pump design and duty, the seal may need to prevent either air ingress into the casing, or fluid egress out of the casing or both of these at different times, if operation is variable. Many casings are designed with the seal area built into a compartment configured to improve sealing performance. For mechanical seals, this compartment is usually referred to as the â€Å"seal chamber†, while for packing seal s, it is known as the â€Å"stuffing box†. Slurry pump seals usually consist of several rings of packing fitted in a stuffing box around the shaft, often with provision for grease lubrication or water injection to reduce friction and provide additional sealing (particularly for when the pump is stopped). There are many stuffing box design variations and many types and configurations of packing. Stuffing boxes will accept a number of rings of packing, with a packing ring or throat bush preventing extrusion into the casing, and a gland (sometimes called a â€Å"follower†) used to adjust packing compression. A lantern ring may be substituted for one of the packing rings, to cater for injection of grease or sealing water, water being particularly required if air would otherwise be sucked into the fluid stream at this point. Sealing water (or an alternative clean liquid) is usually required for: Slurries   Liquids for which leakage is not acceptable   Liquids that are not suitable for sealing purposes   Suction lifts greater than 4.5m (air ingress may interfere with priming)   Discharge pressures above 70kPa The packing must be placed under some compression and this tends to result in wear on the shaft, which is often sleeved to avoid having to replace the entire shaft once wear is advanced. There are numerous designs of shaft sleeves. The shaft sleeve must be resistant to friction and heat, and several different materials and surface treatments are available – eg hardened high-chrome stainless steel, ceramic, plasma spray or tungsten carbide coating etc. To prevent chipping, coatings should not extend to the edges of the sleeve. The sleeve does not contribute to strength, so the shaft itself must be large enough to carry all the loads, and this means that including a sleeve in the design enlarges the seal diameter. For small pumps, this may decrease pumping efficiency and raise the purchase cost to the point that sleeves may be abandoned and a stainless steel shaft used instead. Glands may be solid, or split to allow replacement without disassembly of pump or bearing assembly. They are usually made of bronze, cast iron or steel. Special designs are used to improve safety if the fluid is hazardous. The leakage of fluid past the packing is controlled by tightening the gland, compressing the packing axially and expands it radially so that leakage paths along the shaft sleeve are constrained. However, some fluid flow between packing and sleeve is usually needed to avoid overheating the packing and damaging the sleeve surface. Once the sleeve surface is damaged, the sealing efficiency decreases and more tightening is required, further damaging the sleeve, and so on. The secret is to provide a configuration of packing and seal water injection that suits the application, and then avoid over-adjustment. To further reduce the pressure at the shaft seal area, where the rear pump-out vanes are not sufficient, some slurry pumps are fitted with a second smaller open-faced impeller, usually called an â€Å"expeller†. Many different designs have been tried. If sealing water is used, there will be a design intention regarding the ratio of water to pass in to the volute compared to out past the gland follower. This can be controlled using the number of packing rings on each side of the lantern ring, but the lantern ring must be installed at the injection point. For clean water pumps, this seal water is sometimes provided from the pump discharge. Clean water must be used to avoid contaminating the packing with grit – filtration or cycloning may be necessary if the water contains some grit. When managing sealing arrangements, thought must be given to what happens when the pump is stopped. The pressure in the stuffing box changes to static conditions, which may result in slurry leaking into the packing and contaminating it, causing rapid sleeve wear on re-starting. But if sealing water continues to be applied, the slurry may be diluted, and eventually a sump can be filled with sealing water if left idle for a long time. For prolonged stoppages, sumps may be best dropped, for various reasons. On restarting, sealing water supply should start before the pump starts. Stuffing boxes in extreme applications may be provided with galleries through which cooling water can pass to prevent excessive temperatures around the packing. In applications where leakage must be more precisely controlled, or where elevated temperatures in the seal area must be avoided (for example where the fluid is volatile), mechanical seals may be suitable, provided that the fluid is not damaging to the seal components. A comparison between mechanical seals and packing seals is given below. ï‚ · Packing seals: o Low initial cost o Tend to deteriorate gradually o Easily replaced when necessary o Can handle large axial shaft movements o Always some leakage required o Require regular adjustment o Not suitable for hazardous / volatile fluids o Often cause progressive shaft sleeve wear o Can result in significant shaft power losses o Limited to low pressures and speeds ï‚ · Mechanical seals: o Minimal or zero leakage o No adjustments required o Suitable for hazardous / volat ile fluids o No shaft wear o Do not consume significant shaft power o Can handle high pressures and speeds o Tend to fail suddenly o Replacement requires pump disassembly o High initial cost Packing seals work as a result of axial compression, so that the packing rings extrude outward and apply radial pressure to the adjacent components, these being the static surface of the stuffing box, and the rotating shaft sleeve. A dynamic seal is formed between the packing rings and the sleeve surface, with some fluid flow between the two being necessary for lubrication and cooling. For clean water pumps, this fluid may be supplied from the inner end of the stuffing box, or from the discharge pipe via small diameter piping. In the case of slurries, grit in the fluid would add to friction and wear, so the lubricating and cooling fluid is usually injected from a separate clean water supply. The injection pressure should be 10 to 25psi greater than that at the inside end of the stuffing box, and this figure should be available from the pump designer. A rule of thumb is to set the gland feed water pressure to between 35 and 70kPa above pump discharge pressure. Pressure regulation is often helpful. In theory, some slurry pumps should operate with a pressure at the inside of the stuffing box which is below atmospheric pressure, so that the packing is required only to prevent air ingress into the pump. However, when the pump is turned off, or in abnormal operating conditions, slurry can pass back into the seal and contaminate the packing with grit, so these situations still call for water injection. Grease or oil may be used instead of water in some applications. Packing material must be able to withstand the operating environment and remain resilient to perform satisfactorily despite minor shaft misalignment, run-out, wear and thermal expansion / contraction. Packing is available in a huge range of materials (lubricant, binder and fibre / matrix) and in many sizes, shapes, and constructions, to suit different applications – particularly size, shaft speed, temperature, pressure, and chemical resistance. The number of packing rings varies between applications, the most common arrangement being throat bush or ring, three inner packing rings, lantern ring, two more packing rings, and gland follower. The lantern ring may be placed further in, to reduce slurry ingress. Packing size is usually proportional to shaft / sleeve outer diameter, as follows: Shaft / Sleeve OD (mm) 15 to 30 30 to 50 50 to 75 75 to 120 120 to 305 Packing Size (mm) 6 8 10 12.5 16 Shaft sleeve finish needs to be at least 0.4micron CLA to avoid excessive rotational friction, and the finish in the stuffing box bore needs to be at least 1.65 micron CLA to allow even compression during adjustment. The sleeve must be harder than the packing, and chemically resistant to the fluid pumped and the injection fluid. Any coating on the sleeve must have a good thermal shock resistance. The lantern ring allows for entry and distribution of the lubricant or flushing fluid. Lantern rings are usually split to allow installation and removal without pump disassembly. They were traditionally made from metal such as stainless steel, but lubricant-impregnated plastics are now common. Gland followers are also usually split to allow easy replacement. They are usually bronze but may be steel or cast iron. Special purpose gland followers are used with volatile or hazardous materials, including capacity for diluting and safely flushing away leakage. The axial compression on the packing must be occasionally adjusted to control leakage. The correct leakage rate is one drip per second. Over-tightening should be avoided as it will result in over-heating and shaft wear. Most packing is supplied with impregnated lubricant, and over-tightening will press the lubricant out. Pumps need extra sealing provisions if pressure at the inner end of the stuffing box is greater than 75psi. The use of harder packing material on the inner rings may help. The procedure for replacing packing is: 1. Read the instructions provided by the pump manufacturer and packing supplier. 2. Loosen and remove gland follower. Inspect gland follower for wear, corrosion, warping etc. 3. Remove old packing rings using a packing puller, and the lantern ring. 4. Inspect shaft sleeve surface for deterioration, and clean up where possible. Replace if necessary. 5. Inspect bore of stuffing box for corrosion, wear, scaling etc, and clean up where possible. 6. Verify correct packing size to be used. 7. Tightly wrap the correct number of packing coils around a mandrel of equal diameter to the shaft sleeve. 8. Cut each ring at an oblique angle. 9. Install each ring, staggering the joins 90 degrees on subsequent rings. Suction / Intake Design Centrifugal pumps operate most efficiently when the liquid to be pumped flows into the inlet nozzle in a smooth, uniform manner with minimal turbulence. Suction systems need to be designed to ensure that this happens. The most common problems are: ï‚ · Uneven / turbulent flow ï‚ · Vapour collection ï‚ · Vortex formation Suction piping should be as short and straight as possible to minimise friction, and if unavoidably long, should be of large diameter. The suction line will normally be at least one pipe size larger than the pump inlet flange, requiring fitment of a reducer. A reducer should not change the pipe bore by more than 100mm. Fluid flow should be as uniform as possible right up to the pump inlet flange. There should not be any fittings likely to cause turbulence, sudden changes in flow direction or spin within ten pipe diameters of the pump inlet flange. There should be no short radius elbows at all, and no long radius elbows within three pipe diameters. All suction line connections need thorough sealing to prevent air being drawn in. For suction manifolds serving multiple pumps, all the above points apply, and branches should be angled at 30 or 45 degrees, rather than ninety degrees, and sized so that fluid flow is constant throughout. Flow should not exceed 0.9m/s. Improper suction conditions or designs can result in the fluid swirling as it approaches the pump through the suction pipe. This is called â€Å"pre-rotation†. It causes a drop in pumping efficiency because the pump is designed to process fluid that is entering without rotation, and can cause additional suction pipe wear. Sometimes a radial fin is fitted to the suction pipe or casing to reduce pre-rotation. The suction pipe design should cater for elimination of air from the suction line, and prevention of vapour pockets, in the simplest manner, meaning that: ï‚ · For pumps with the feed being drawn from a level below (eg a dam pump), o Suction pipe should have a slightly upward slope toward the pump o The eccentric reducer should have the flat side on top ï‚ · For pumps with the feed being drawn from a level above (eg a thickener underflow pump), o Suction pipe should have a slightly downward slope toward the pump Vortexing in feed tanks needs to be avoided to prevent air being drawn down into the pump. Baffles may need to be fitted to tank walls. The tank fluid level needs to be kept well above the suction inlet. Bearings Bearings provide axial and lateral restraint to the pump shaft and attached components, while allowing free rotation. Axial loading on pump shafts may be significant as discussed separately, and the bearing arrangement always includes some thrust capability. The bearings most commonly used are deep-groove single row ball bearings, and single or double row angular contact ball bearings. Pumps may be in overhung configuration, where the shaft is supported by bearings on one side only, or have a shaft that passes right throught the casing with bearings on both sides. Most slurry pumps are of the overhung design. The bearings are usually rolling-element, but plain journal bearings are sometimes used on larger pump sizes. The bearings must be lubricated by grease injection or oil bath and may need provisions for cooling as well. This may be by having a cooling water jacket integral with the bearing housing, or by pumping the lubricating oil through a heat exchanger and filter. Oil lubrication is usually recommended rather than grease, if speed exceeds 5000rpm (which is very rare in a slurry pump). Grease-packed bearings should have one third of the chamber filled with grease. Oil baths should be filled to the centre point of the lowest rolling element. Inadequate loading of bearings can result in the rolling elements skating over the race instead of rolling, and this can cause heating and failure. To avoid this, bearing assemblies are usually designed with an assembly configuration, including preload, that ensures all bearings carry some load. Frame and Foundations For large pumps that are directly connected (ie no vee-belt drive), the motor and pump are usually mounted on the same bed-plate, which is fixed to the foundations in a way sufficient for eliminating looseness and distortion. This eliminates some misalignment issues at the source. Foundations including bed-plates should be checked occasionally for deterioration (corrosion, ground subsidence, concrete cracking, loose fasteners, missing grout etc), and the alignment between pump and motor should also be checked if there is any cause for concern. The framework should have provisions for drainage of any spillage and seal leakage etc, so that this does not become trapped and contribute to corrosion etc. Where pumps operate at high temperature (ie above around 100C) the pump casing should be supported at its axial centre-line, to help reduce thermal stresses. It is generally preferred that all suction and discharge piping have its own supports, so that the pump casing and foundations do not carry any significant static or dynamic piping loads, and so that pump components can be independently removed and replaced. Where this is not the case, extra pump and foundation attention may be needed at the design stage. Drive Arrangement Many drive arrangements are possible to suit the circumstances. Electric motor drive is the most popular, followed by internal combustion engines. Variable speed drives are sometimes necessary and often convenient, but always more expensive and less reliable. In minerals handling plants, slurry pumps are most often electric motor driven, with belt drives. Belt drives allow speeds to be changed through minor modifications – ie pulley changes. Short, low head slurry system designs usually provide motors that are 10 to 20% oversized, to cater for any under-estimates in slurry or system characteristics such as viscosity and friction, and to allow for minor system modifications during the service life. Instrumentation Pumps may be controlled to allow: ï‚ · Variation of flow rate, pressure, liquid level ï‚ · Protection against damaging operating conditions ï‚ · Flexibility in matching pumping performance to duty For centrifugal pumps, control is usually accomplished by speed setting (including turning off/on), or valve setting. This may be manual or automatic. For slurries, control by throttling valve is rare due to the wear rates that usually result. Typical instrumentation includes: ï‚ · Tank / sump level switches ï‚ · Pressure sensors ï‚ · Flow sensors ï‚ · Density sensors In each case, protection from damage by the slurry is critical. This is commonly achieved by using sensors that do not need to contact the slurry eg nucleonic density sensors mounted outside the pipe, with source on one side and detector on the other. Ideally, it is good to have instrumentation available, either permanently mounted or portable, to: Verify operation at BEP, by measuring the difference between suction and discharge pressure Determine flow Ensure that NPSH is sufficient to prevent cavitation Compare flow to motor amperage, to identify when impeller adjustment is needed Need to search more on valves for slurry applications. Notes on Material Selection Where there is some chance of parts coming into contact during pump operation, thought should be given towards minimising the damage that may result. An example of this is at the wear-ring / impeller interface. Studies have shown that damage can be minimised by manufacturing adjacent components from materials that:   Are dissimilar, except where known to be resistant to adhesive wear and galling   Have a difference in hardness of at least 10Rc, if either has hardness less than 45Rc Because it may be difficult to always prevent cavitation from occurring, impellers are usually made of cavitationresistant materials such as chrome-manganese austenitic stainless steel, carburised 12% chrome stainless steel, cast nickel-aluminium bronze, etc. Obviously corrosion resistance is another key selection factor that these materials satisfy. Slurry pumps are subject to heavy wear in the form of abrasion and erosion. The aggressiveness of the slurry is determined by the hardness of the particle s in the slurry, their shape (rounded or sharp), the pulp density, and the size distribution. Slurries can become less aggressive as they travel through a minerals processing plant as the sharp edges become rounded off. Velocity and angle of impingment are also very important factors affecting the resultant wear rates, with wear rate being proportional to velocity squared according to some references. The impingement angle associated with maximum wear rate seems to be dependent on the hardness and brittleness of the material being struck. For very hard / brittle materials it is between 65 and 90 degrees, while for more ductile materials it may be around 25 degrees. Pumps handling slurries with greater than 6mm particle size are usually lined with rubber. However, if impeller tip speed exceeds 28m/s, rubber becomes subject to thermal degradation, and this usually restricts the use of rubber to a maximum head of 30m per stage. Metal lined pumps may be used up to 55m head per stage. For wet end components, materials that may be used to resist wear include Ni-resist, carburised and hardened 12% chromium steel, etc. White iron slurry pump components, which includes Ni-Hard, are restricted to impeller tip speeds of about 36m/s to avoid maximum disc stresses. Steel components are softer but can run at higher speeds, up to a tip speed of 45m/s. Centrifugal pumps are subject to cyclic loads due to such things as imbalance, unbalanced radial forces, fluctuating axial thrust, the vibration induced as each vane passes the cut-point, and variations in upstream and downstream fluid pressure and flow. This sets the scene for fatigue loading, which becomes more of an issue if the slurry is corrosive. Fretting may occur between assembled components where looseness is allowed to develop. This is best avoided through the use of correct manufacturing dimensions and surface finishes, good fitting practice etc. The materials commonly used for pump components include:   Impellers (require castability, weldability, and resistance to corrosion, abrasion, and cavitation) o Bronze, for non-corrosive liquids below 120C o Nickel-aluminium bronze, for higher speed and mildly corrosive applications o Cast iron, for small low-cost applications o Martensitic stainless steel, where added resistance to cavitation, wear, corrosion (other than salt water) or high temperatures may be required o Austenitic stainless steel (mostly cast 316 grade), where a higher level of corrosion resistance is needed. Austenitic stainless steel with 6% molybdenum is often used for salt water pumping.   Casings (require strength, castability and machinability, weldability, and resistance to corrosion and wear) o Cast iron o Cast steel, where extra strength is required ie for pressures above 6000kPa (1000psi) and temperatures above 175C. o Austenitic cast irons with 15 to 20% nickel (Ni-Resist) may be used where abrasion and corrosion are issues. o Bronze, for water applications o Stainless steel, where corrosion is a major issue – martensitic for higher pressures in mildly corrosive fluids, austenitic for more aggressively corrosive fluids. ï‚ · Shafts (require resistance to fatigue and corrosion) o Mild steel, where corrosion and fatigue are minor issues Low alloy steel such as 4140 for added strength Martensitic stainless steel, where added strength and corrosion resistance are needed Shafts are usually chrome-plated, and care is needed to avoid this adding to the fatigue susceptibility through micro–cracking and hydrogen embrittlement. Shafts can be shot-peened prior to plating, and heat-treated afterward to reduce these effects. Wear rings (require castability and machinability, and resistance to corrosion, abrasion and galling) o Bronze for clean liquids and temperatures up to 120C o Stainless steel for applications with abrasion, corrosion and high temperatures – but steps must be taken to avoid galling should the rings come into contact eg increased clearances, hardness differences etc. o o o Impellers other than those made from martensitic stainless steel can usually be repaired by welding, although in some cases this needs to be followed by specific heat treatment processes. In all cases, more exotic (and expensive) materials may be used for specific applications. Material selection is often a balancing act between optimising purchase cost and maintenance / operations performance. Where high temperatures are involved, material selection must take into account differences in expansion rates. Unlined slurry pump impellers and casings are often made from abrasion-resistant cast irons as per ASTM A532, which includes Ni-Hard. These materials consist of a martensitic matrix with secondary hard phases of chrome and iron carbides that increase wear resistance. They cannot be machined or welded, and tend to be prone to corrosion, and breakage through mechanical impact and thermal shock. Brittleness may be reduced by annealing, but this reduces wear resistance. Slurry pump impellers and casings may be lined with softer materials like rubber, where high temperatures can be avoided. These can reduce wear rates by absorbing the impact energy of the particles, while resisting corrosion. Problems may arise in bonding of the rubber at the cut water point, and on the impeller. The lining reduces the thickness of the metal section of the component, so stronger materials are usually used eg steel rather than cast iron. Manufacturers develop their own specifications for ideal liner thicknesses based on experience, but one reference suggests a volute liner thickness of 4% to 6% of impeller diameter. Natural rubbers seem well suited for wear liners for use with slurries with less than 6mm particle size for the impeller, and 15mm particle size for the volute. Provided the base materials are suitable, patches of high wear on wet end parts can sometimes be repaired by welding / hard-facing. However, this increases the likelihood of cracking. Also if the welding results in uneven surfaces in critical points, the added turbulence can accelerate further wear. Many types and styles of surface coating have been tried, with some success. These include thermal spray coatings, diffusion surface treatments, spraying and trowelling of epoxies, etc.